Edexcel A-Level Chemistry Syllabus (9CH0)

Pearson Edexcel A-Level Chemistry (9CH0) is one of the most academically rigorous and internationally recognised chemistry qualifications for students aiming to study medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, biochemistry, engineering, and related sciences.

In this guide, we provide a clear overview of the Edexcel A-Level Chemistry syllabus, exam structure, and assessment components. It also includes detailed explanations of each topic.

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What Is Pearson Edexcel A-Level Chemistry (9CH0)?

Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Chemistry (9CH0) is a two-year A-Level programme designed to develop deep theoretical understanding, strong practical skills, and analytical problem-solving abilities in chemistry.

Key Features of the Course

Qualification Level: A-Level (Advanced)
Exam Board: Pearson Edexcel
Course Duration: 2 years
Assessment Method: 100% written examinations
Coursework: None
Practical Endorsement: Required (Pass / Not Classified)

Edexcel A-Level Chemistry (9CH0) Syllabus Structure

The qualification is assessed through three written examination papers, each focusing on different aspects of chemistry.

Paper 1: Advanced Inorganic and Physical Chemistry

Weighting: 30%

Paper 1 focuses on physical chemistry principles and inorganic chemistry, requiring strong mathematical and conceptual understanding.

Paper 1 Topic Areas

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Atomic Structure and Periodicity
Bonding and Structure
Redox Processes
Inorganic Chemistry (Group 2, Group 7, Transition Metals)
Kinetics
Energetics
Chemical Equilibria

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Core concepts and learning outcomes
Mathematical skills required
Common exam question styles
Typical student challenges

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Paper 2: Advanced Organic and Physical Chemistry

Weighting: 30%

Paper 2 emphasises organic chemistry, reaction mechanisms, and analytical techniques, forming the backbone of the syllabus.

Paper 2 Topic Areas

🔽 Detailed explanations can be added under each heading

Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Halogenoalkanes
Alcohols, Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
Aromatic Chemistry
Polymers
Organic Synthesis and Reaction Mechanisms
Spectroscopic Analysis (IR, NMR, Mass Spectrometry)
Thermodynamics
Acid–Base Equilibria

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Reaction mechanisms and conditions
Multi-step organic synthesis
Interpretation of spectroscopic data

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Paper 3: General and Practical Principles in Chemistry

Weighting: 40%

Paper 3 assesses students’ ability to apply knowledge across the entire syllabus, with a strong emphasis on practical chemistry and data analysis.

Paper 3 Coverage

Practical techniques and procedures
Experimental data analysis
Questions spanning multiple topic areas
Core practical experiments

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Core Practical Experiments

The Edexcel A-Level Chemistry syllabus includes 12 mandatory Core Practical experiments that students must complete during the course.

Why Core Practicals Matter

Frequently assessed in written exams
Test experimental design and evaluation
Focus on understanding, not memorisation

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Exam Format and Assessment Style

Edexcel A-Level Chemistry exams typically include:

Multi-step calculation questions
Extended written explanations
Graph drawing and interpretation
Reaction mechanism diagrams
Practical data and experimental analysis

📌 The assessment focuses on scientific reasoning rather than rote learning.

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Who Is This Course Suitable For?

Pearson Edexcel A-Level Chemistry (9CH0) is ideal for students who:

Plan to study medicine or health-related degrees
Prefer A-Levels over the IB Diploma Programme
Are comfortable with mathematical problem solving
Can study chemistry in an academic English environment

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Edexcel A-Level Chemistry vs Other Programmes

Programme	Academic Demand	Flexibility	Global Recognition
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry	High	High	Very High
IB Chemistry HL	Very High	Low	Very High
Cambridge A-Level Chemistry	High	Medium	Very High

Topic 1: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Students should:
1. know the structure of an atom in terms of electrons, protons and neutrons
2. know the relative mass and relative charge of protons, neutrons and electrons
3. know what is meant by the terms ‘atomic (proton) number’ and ‘mass number’
4. be able to determine the number of each type of sub-atomic particle in an atom,
molecule or ion from the atomic (proton) number and mass number
5. understand the term ‘isotopes’
6. be able to define the terms ‘relative isotopic mass’ and ‘relative atomic mass’,
based on the 12C scale
7. understand the terms ‘relative molecular mass’ and ‘relative formula mass’,
including calculating these values from relative atomic masses
Definitions of these terms will not be expected.
The term ‘relative formula mass’ should be used for compounds with giant
structures.
8. be able to analyse and interpret data from mass spectrometry to calculate
relative atomic mass from relative abundance of isotopes and vice versa
9. be able to predict the mass spectra, including relative peak heights, for diatomic
molecules, including chlorine
10. understand how mass spectrometry can be used to determine the relative
molecular mass of a molecule
Limited to the m/z value for the molecular ion, M+, giving the relative molecular
mass of the molecule.
11. be able to define the terms ‘first ionisation energy’ and ‘successive ionisation
energies’
12. understand how ionisation energies are influenced by the number of protons, the
electron shielding and the electron sub-shell from which the electron is removed
13. understand reasons for the general increase in first ionisation energy across a
period
14. understand reasons for the decrease in first ionisation energy down a group

15. understand how ideas about electronic configuration developed from:
i the fact that atomic emission spectra provide evidence for the existence
of quantum shells
ii the fact that successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the existence
of quantum shells and the group to which the element belongs
iii the fact that the first ionisation energy of successive elements provides
evidence for electron sub-shells
16. know the number of electrons that can fill the first four quantum shells
17. know that an orbital is a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons
with opposite spins
18. know the shape of an s-orbital and a p-orbital
19. know the number of electrons that occupy s, p and d-subshells
20 know that electrons fill subshells singly, before pairing up, and that two electrons
in the same orbital must have opposite spins
21. be able to predict the electronic configurations, using 1s notation and electronsin-boxes notation, of:
i atoms, given the atomic number, Z, up to Z = 36
ii ions, given the atomic number, Z, and the ionic charge, for s and p block ions
only, up to Z = 36
22. know that elements can be classified as s, p and d-block elements
23. understand that electronic configuration determines the chemical properties of an
element
24. understand periodicity in terms of a repeating pattern across different periods
25. understand reasons for the trends in the following properties of the elements
from periods 2 and 3 of the Periodic Table:
i the melting and boiling temperatures of the elements, based on given data, in
terms of structure and bonding
ii ionisation energy based on given data or recall of the plots of ionisation energy
versus atomic number
26. be able to illustrate periodicity using data, including electronic configurations,
atomic radii, melting and boiling temperatures and first ionisation energies

Topic 2: Bonding and Structure

Topic 2A: Bonding
1. know that ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions
2. understand the effects that ionic radius and ionic charge have on the strength of
ionic bonding
3. understand the formation of ions in terms of electron loss or gain
4. be able to draw electronic configuration diagrams of cations and anions using
dot-and-cross diagrams
5. understand reasons for the trends in ionic radii down a group and for a set of
isoelectronic ions, e.g. N3– to Al3+
6. understand that the physical properties of ionic compounds and the migration of
ions provide evidence for the existence of ions
7. know that a covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between two
nuclei and the shared pair of electrons between them
8. be able to draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show electrons in covalent substances,
including:
i molecules with single, double and triple bonds
ii species exhibiting dative covalent (coordinate) bonding, including Al2Cl6 and
ammonium ion
9. understand the relationship between bond lengths and bond strengths for
covalent bonds
10. understand that the shape of a simple molecule or ion is determined by the
repulsion between the electron pairs that surround a central atom
11. understand reasons for the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and
ions with up to six outer pairs of electrons (any combination of bonding pairs and
lone pairs)
Examples should include BeCl2, BCl3, CH4, NH3, NH4+, H2O, CO2, PCl5(g) and
SF6(g) and related molecules and ions; as well as simple organic molecules in
this specification

12. be able to predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions
analogous to those specified above using electron-pair repulsion theory
13. know that electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding
electrons in a covalent bond
14. know that ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of a continuum of
bonding type and that electronegativity differences lead to bond polarity in bonds
and molecules
15. understand that molecules with polar bonds may not be polar molecules and be
able to predict whether or not a given molecule is likely to be polar
16. understand the nature of intermolecular forces resulting from the following
interactions:
i London forces (instantaneous dipole – induced dipole)
ii permanent dipoles
iii hydrogen bonds
17. understand the interactions in molecules, such as H2O, liquid NH3 and liquid HF,
which give rise to hydrogen bonding
18. understand the following anomalous properties of water resulting from hydrogen
bonding:
i its relatively high melting temperature and boiling temperature
ii the density of ice compared to that of water
19. be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules analogous to
those mentioned above
20. understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical properties shown by
materials, including:
i the trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length
ii the effect of branching in the carbon chain on the boiling temperatures of
alkanes
iii the relatively low volatility (higher boiling temperatures) of alcohols compared
to alkanes with a similar number of electrons
iv the trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides, HF to HI
21. understand factors that influence the choice of solvents, including:
i water, to dissolve some ionic compounds, in terms of the hydration of the ions
ii water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding
iii water, as a poor solvent for compounds (to include polar molecules such as
halogenoalkanes), in terms of inability to form hydrogen bonds
iv non-aqueous solvents, for compounds that have similar intermolecular forces
to those in the solvent
22. know that metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between metal
ions and the delocalised electrons

Topic 2B: Structure
23. know that giant lattices are present in:
i ionic solids (giant ionic lattices)
ii covalently bonded solids, such as diamond, graphite and silicon(IV) oxide
(giant covalent lattices)
iii solid metals (giant metallic lattices)
24. know that the structure of covalently bonded substances such as iodine, I2, and
ice, H2O, is simple molecular
25. know the different structures formed by carbon atoms, including graphite,
diamond and graphene
26. be able to predict the type of structure and bonding present in a substance from
numerical data and/or other information
27. be able to predict the physical properties of a substance, including melting and
boiling temperature, electrical conductivity and solubility in water, in terms of:
i the types of particle present (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons)
ii the structure of the substance
iii the type of bonding and the presence of intermolecular forces, where relevant

Topic 3: Redox I

1. know what is meant by the term ‘oxidation number’
2. be able to calculate the oxidation number of elements in compounds and ions
The use of oxidation numbers in peroxides and metal hydrides is expected.
3. understand oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer and changes in
oxidation number, applied to reactions of s- and p-block elements
4. understand oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss or electron gain
5. know that oxidising agents gain electrons
6. know that reducing agents lose electrons
7. understand that a disproportionation reaction involves an element in a single
species being simultaneously oxidised and reduced
8. know that oxidation number is a useful concept in terms of the classification of
reactions as redox and as disproportionation
9. be able to indicate the oxidation number of an element in a compound or ion,
using a Roman numeral
10. be able to write formulae given oxidation numbers
11. understand that metals, in general, form positive ions by loss of electrons with
an increase in oxidation number
12. understand that non-metals, in general, form negative ions by gain of electrons
with a decrease in oxidation number
13. be able to write ionic half-equations and use them to construct full ionic
equations

Topic 4: Inorganic Chemistry and the Periodic Table

Topic 4A: The elements of Groups 1 and 2
1. understand reasons for the trend in ionisation energy down Group 2
2. understand reasons for the trend in reactivity of the Group 2 elements down the
group
3. know the reactions of the elements Mg to Ba in Group 2 with oxygen, chlorine
and water
4. know the reactions of the oxides of Group 2 elements with water and dilute acid,
and their hydroxides with dilute acid
5. know the trends in solubility of the hydroxides and sulfates of Group 2 elements
6. understand reasons for the trends in thermal stability of the nitrates and the
carbonates of the elements in Groups 1 and 2 in terms of the size and charge of
the cations involved
7. understand the formation of characteristic flame colours by Group 1 and 2
compounds in terms of electron transitions
Students will be expected to know the flame colours for Groups 1 and 2
compounds.
8. understand experimental procedures to show:
i patterns in thermal decomposition of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates
ii flame colours in compounds of Group 1 and 2 elements

Topic 4B: The elements of Group 7 (halogens)
9. understand reasons for the trends in melting and boiling temperatures, physical
state at room temperature, and electronegativity for Group 7 elements
10. understand reasons for the trend in reactivity of Group 7 elements down the
group
11. understand the trend in reactivity of Group 7 elements in terms of the redox
reactions of Cl2, Br2 and I2 with halide ions in aqueous solution, followed by the
addition of an organic solvent
12. understand, in terms of changes in oxidation number, the following reactions of
the halogens:
i oxidation reactions with Group 1 and 2 metals
ii the disproportionation reaction of chlorine with water and the use of chlorine
in water treatment
iii the disproportionation reaction of chlorine with cold, dilute aqueous sodium
hydroxide to form bleach
iv the disproportionation reaction of chlorine with hot alkali
v reactions analogous to those specified above
13. understand the following reactions:
i solid Group 1 halides with concentrated sulfuric acid, to illustrate the trend in
reducing ability of the hydrogen halides
ii precipitation reactions of the aqueous anions Cl–, Br– and I– with aqueous
silver nitrate solution, followed by aqueous ammonia solution
iii hydrogen halides with ammonia and with water (to produce acids)
14. be able to make predictions about fluorine and astatine and their compounds, in
terms of knowledge of trends in halogen chemistry
Topic 4C: Analysis of inorganic compounds
15. know reactions, including ionic equations where appropriate, for identifying:
i carbonate ions, CO32-
, and hydrogencarbonate ions, HCO3–, using an aqueous
acid to form carbon dioxide
ii sulfate ions, SO42-
, using acidified barium chloride solution
iii ammonium ions, NH4+, using sodium hydroxide solution and warming to form
ammonia
Tests for halide ions and for the ions of Group 1 and 2 metals are also required,
but are covered elsewhere in this Topic

Topic 5: Formulae, Equations and Amounts of Substance

1. know that the mole (mol) is the unit for amount of a substance
2. be able to use the Avogadro constant, L, (6.02 × 1023 mol-1) in calculations
3. know that the molar mass of a substance is the mass per mole of the substance
in g mol-1
4. know what is meant by the terms ‘empirical formula’ and ‘molecular formula’
5. be able to use experimental data to calculate
i. empirical formulae
ii. molecular formulae including the use of pV = nRT for gases and volatile liquids
Calculations of empirical formula may involve composition by mass or percentage
composition by mass data.
6. be able to write balanced full and ionic equations, including state symbols, for
chemical reactions
7. be able to calculate amounts of substances (in mol) in reactions involving mass,
volume of gas, volume of solution and concentration
These calculations may involve reactants and/or products.
8. be able to calculate reacting masses from chemical equations, and vice versa,
using the concepts of amount of substance and molar mass
9. be able to calculate reacting volumes of gases from chemical equations, and vice
versa, using the concepts of amount of substance
10. be able to calculate reacting volumes of gases from chemical equations, and vice
versa, using the concepts of molar volume of gases
CORE PRACTICAL 1: Measure the molar volume of a gas
11. be able to calculate solution concentrations, in mol dm-3 and g dm-3, including
simple acid-base titrations using a range of acids, alkalis and indicators
The use of both phenolphthalein and methyl orange as indicators will be
expected.

CORE PRACTICAL 2: Prepare a standard solution from a solid acid and use it
to find the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide
CORE PRACTICAL 3: Find the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid
12. be able to:
i calculate measurement uncertainties and measurement errors in experimental
results
ii comment on sources of error in experimental procedures
13. understand how to minimise the percentage error and percentage uncertainty in
experiments involving measurements
14. be able to calculate percentage yields and percentage atom economies using
chemical equations and experimental results
molar mass of the desired product Atom economy of a reaction = × 100%
sum of the molar masses of all products
15. be able to relate ionic and full equations, with state symbols, to observations
from simple test tube reactions, to include:
i displacement reactions
ii reactions of acids
iii precipitation reactions
16. understand risks and hazards in practical procedures and suggest appropriate
precautions where necessary

Topic 6: Organic Chemistry I

Topic 6A: Introduction to organic chemistry
1. know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
2. be able to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular
formulae, general formulae, structural formulae, displayed formulae and skeletal
formulae
3. know what is meant by the terms ‘homologous series’ and ‘functional group’
4. be able to name compounds relevant to this specification using the rules of
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature
Students will be expected to know prefixes for compounds up to C10
5. be able to classify reactions as addition, elimination, substitution, oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis or polymerisation
6. understand the term ‘structural isomerism’ and determine the possible structural,
displayed and skeletal formulae of an organic molecule, given its molecular
formula
7. understand the term ‘stereoisomerism’, as illustrated by E/Z isomerism
(including cis-trans isomerism where two of the substituent groups are the same)
Topic 6B: Alkanes
8. know the general formula for alkanes
9. know that alkanes and cycloalkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
10. understand that alkane fuels are obtained from the fractional distillation, cracking
and reforming of crude oil
Reforming is described as the processing of straight-chain hydrocarbons into
branched-chain alkanes and cyclic hydrocarbons for efficient combustion.
11. know that pollutants, including carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur,
carbon particulates and unburned hydrocarbons, are formed during the
combustion of alkane fuels

12. understand the problems arising from pollutants from the combustion of fuels,
limited to the toxicity of carbon monoxide and the acidity of oxides of nitrogen
and sulfur
13. understand how the use of a catalytic converter solves some problems caused by
pollutants
14. understand the use of alternative fuels, including biodiesel and alcohols derived
from renewable sources such as plants, in terms of a comparison with
non-renewable fossil fuels
15. know that a radical:
i is a species with an unpaired electron and is represented in mechanisms by a
single dot
ii is formed by homolytic fission of a covalent bond and results in the formation
of radicals
16. understand the reactions of alkanes with:
i oxygen in air (combustion)
ii halogens, in terms of the mechanism of radical substitution through initiation,
propagation and termination steps
The use of curly half-arrows is not expected in this mechanism.
17. understand the limitations of the use of radical substitution reactions in the
synthesis of organic molecules, in terms of further substitution reactions and the
formation of a mixture of products
Topic 6C: Alkenes
18. know the general formula for alkenes
19. know that alkenes and cycloalkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
20. understand the bonding in alkenes in terms of σ- and π- bonds
21. know what is meant by the term ‘electrophile’
22. understand the addition reactions of alkenes with:
i hydrogen, in the presence of a nickel catalyst, to form an alkane
Knowledge of the application of this reaction to the manufacture of margarine
by catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable oils is expected.
ii halogens to produce dihalogenoalkanes
iii hydrogen halides to produce halogenoalkanes
iv steam, in the presence of an acid catalyst, to produce alcohols
v potassium manganate(VII), in acid conditions, to oxidise the double bond and
produce a diol
23. understand that heterolytic bond fission of a covalent bond results in the
formation of ions

24. understand the mechanism of the electrophilic addition reactions between
alkenes and:
i halogens
ii hydrogen halides, including addition to unsymmetrical alkenes
iii other given binary compounds
Use of the curly arrow notation is expected − curly arrows should start from
either a bond or from a lone pair of electrons.
Knowledge of the relative stability of primary, secondary and tertiary carbocation
intermediates is expected.
25. know the qualitative test for a C=C double bond using bromine or bromine water
26. know that alkenes form polymers through addition polymerisation
Be able to identify the repeat unit of an addition polymer given the monomer,
and vice versa.
27. know that waste polymers can be separated into specific types of polymer for:
i recycling
ii incineration to release energy
iii use as a feedstock for cracking
28. understand, in terms of the use of energy and resources over the life cycle of
polymer products, that chemists can contribute to the more sustainable use of
materials
29. understand how chemists limit the problems caused by polymer disposal by:
i developing biodegradable polymers
ii removing toxic waste gases caused by incineration of plastics
Topic 6D: Halogenoalkanes
30. know that halogenoalkanes can be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary
31. understand what is meant by the term ‘nucleophile’
32. understand the reactions of halogenoalkanes with:
i aqueous potassium hydroxide to produce alcohols (where the hydroxide ion
acts as a nucleophile)
ii aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol (where water acts as a nucleophile)
iii potassium cyanide to produce nitriles (where the cyanide ion acts as a
nucleophile)
Students should know this as an example of increasing the length of the
carbon chain.
iv ammonia to produce primary amines (where the ammonia molecule acts as a
nucleophile)
v ethanolic potassium hydroxide to produce alkenes (where the hydroxide ion
acts as a base)

33. understand that experimental observations and data can be used to compare the
relative rates of hydrolysis of:
i primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
ii chloro-, bromo-, and iodoalkanes
using aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol
CORE PRACTICAL 4: Investigation of the rates of hydrolysis of some
halogenoalkanes
34. know the trend in reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
35. understand, in terms of bond enthalpy, the trend in reactivity of chloro-, bromo-,
and iodoalkanes
36. understand the mechanisms of the nucleophilic substitution reactions between
primary halogenoalkanes and:
i aqueous potassium hydroxide
ii ammonia
Topic 6E: Alcohols
37. know that alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary
38. understand the reactions of alcohols with:
i oxygen in air (combustion)
ii halogenating agents:
• PCl5 to produce chloroalkanes
• 50% concentrated sulfuric acid and potassium bromide to produce
bromoalkanes
• red phosphorus and iodine to produce iodoalkanes
iii potassium dichromate(VI) in dilute sulfuric acid to oxidise primary alcohols to
aldehydes (including a test for the aldehyde using Benedict’s/Fehling’s
solution) and carboxylic acids, and secondary alcohols to ketones
In equations, the oxidising agent can be represented as [O].
iv concentrated phosphoric acid to form alkenes by elimination
Descriptions of the mechanisms of these reactions are not expected.
39. understand the following techniques used in the preparation and purification of a
liquid organic compound:
i heating under reflux
ii extraction with a solvent in a separating funnel
iii distillation
iv drying with an anhydrous salt
v boiling temperature determination
CORE PRACTICAL 5: The oxidation of ethanol
CORE PRACTICAL 6: Chlorination of 2-methylpropan-2-ol using concentrated
hydrochloric acid

Topic 7: Modern Analytical Techniques I

Topic 7A: Mass spectrometry
1. be able to use data from a mass spectrometer to:
i determine the relative molecular mass of an organic compound from the
molecular ion peak
ii suggest possible structures of a simple organic compound from the m/z of the
molecular ion and fragmentation patterns
Topic 7B: Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
2. be able to use data from infrared spectra to deduce functional groups present in
organic compounds and to predict infrared absorptions, given wavenumber data,
due to familiar functional groups, including:
i C–H stretching absorption in alkanes, alkenes and aldehydes
ii C=C stretching absorption in alkenes
iii O–H stretching absorption in alcohols
iv C=O stretching absorption in aldehydes and ketones
v C=O stretching absorption and the broad O-H stretching absorption in
carboxylic acids
vi N–H stretching absorption in amines
CORE PRACTICAL 7: Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknowns

Topic 8: Energetics I

1. know that standard conditions are 100 kPa and a specified temperature, usually
298 K
2. know that the enthalpy change is the heat energy change measured at constant
pressure
3. be able to construct and interpret enthalpy level diagrams showing an enthalpy
change, including appropriate signs for exothermic and endothermic reactions
Activation energy is not shown in enthalpy level diagrams but it is shown in
reaction profile diagrams.
4. be able to define standard enthalpy change of:
i reaction
ii formation
iii combustion
iv neutralisation
5. understand experiments to measure enthalpy changes in terms of:
i processing results using the expression:
energy transferred = mass x specific heat capacity × temperature change
(Q=mcΔT)
ii evaluating sources of error and assumptions made in the experiments
Students will need to consider experiments where:
o substances are mixed in an insulated container and the temperature
change is measured
o enthalpy of combustion is measured, such as using a series of alcohols in a
spirit burner
o the enthalpy change cannot be measured directly.
6. be able to calculate enthalpy changes in kJ mol-1 from given experimental results
Both a sign and units are expected in the final answer.

7. be able to construct enthalpy cycles using Hess’s Law
8. be able to calculate enthalpy changes from data using Hess’s Law
CORE PRACTICAL 8: To determine the enthalpy change of a reaction using
Hess’s Law
9. know what is meant by the terms ‘bond enthalpy’ and ‘mean bond enthalpy’
10. be able to calculate an enthalpy change of reaction using mean bond enthalpies
and explain the limitations of this method of calculation
11. be able to calculate mean bond enthalpies from enthalpy changes of reaction

Topic 9: Kinetics I

1. understand, in terms of collision theory, the effect of a change in concentration,
temperature, pressure and surface area on the rate of a chemical reaction
2. understand that reactions only take place when collisions take place with
sufficient energy, known as activation energy
3. be able to calculate the rate of a reaction from:
i data showing the time taken for reaction
ii the gradient of a suitable graph, by drawing a tangent, either for initial rate,
or at a time, t
4. understand qualitatively, in terms of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of
molecular energies, how changes in temperature affect the rate of a reaction
5. understand the role of catalysts in providing alternative reaction routes of lower
activation energy
6. be able to draw the reaction profiles for uncatalysed and catalysed reactions
7. be able to interpret the action of a catalyst in terms of a qualitative
understanding of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies
8. understand the use of a solid (heterogeneous) catalyst for industrial reactions, in
the gas phase, in terms of providing a surface for the reaction
9. understand the economic benefits of the use of catalysts in industrial reactions

Topic 10: Equilibrium I

1. know that many reactions are readily reversible and that they can reach a state
of dynamic equilibrium in which:
i the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction
ii the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant
2. be able to predict and justify the qualitative effect of a change in temperature,
concentration or pressure on a homogeneous system in equilibrium
3. evaluate data to explain the necessity, for many industrial processes, to reach a
compromise between the yield and the rate of reaction
4. be able to deduce an expression for Kc , for homogeneous and heterogeneous
systems, in terms of equilibrium concentrations

Topic 11: Equilibrium II

1. be able to deduce an expression for Kp, for homogeneous and heterogeneous
systems, in terms of equilibrium partial pressures in atm
2. be able to calculate a value, with units where appropriate, for the equilibrium
constant (Kc and Kp) for homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, from
experimental data
3. know the effect of changing temperature on the equilibrium constant (Kc and Kp),
for both exothermic and endothermic reactions
4. understand that the effect of temperature on the position of equilibrium is
explained using a change in the value of the equilibrium constant
5. understand that the value of the equilibrium constant is not affected by changes
in concentration or pressure or by the addition of a catalyst

Topic 12: Acid-base Equilibria

1. know that a Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted–Lowry base is
a proton acceptor
2. know that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of protons
3. be able to identify Brønsted–Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs
4. be able to define the term ‘pH’
5. be able to calculate pH from hydrogen ion concentration
6. be able to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions, in mol dm-3, in a solution
from its pH, using the expression [H+] = 10–pH
7. understand the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid in terms of
degree of dissociation
8. be able to calculate the pH of a strong acid
9. be able to deduce the expression for the acid dissociation constant, Ka, for a
weak acid and carry out relevant calculations
10. be able to calculate the pH of a weak acid making relevant assumptions
11. be able to define the ionic product of water, Kw
12. be able to calculate the pH of a strong base from its concentration, using Kw
13. be able to define the terms ‘pKa’ and ‘pKw’
14. be able to analyse data from the following experiments:
i measuring the pH of a variety of substances, e.g. equimolar solutions of
strong and weak acids, strong and weak bases, and salts
ii comparing the pH of a strong acid and a weak acid after dilution 10, 100 and
1000 times
15. be able to calculate Ka for a weak acid from experimental data given the pH of a
solution containing a known mass of acid

16. be able to draw and interpret titration curves using all combinations of strong
and weak monobasic acids and bases
17. be able to select a suitable indicator, using a titration curve and appropriate data
18. know what is meant by the term ‘buffer solution’
19. understand the action of a buffer solution
20. be able to calculate the pH of a buffer solution given appropriate data
21. be able to calculate the concentrations of solutions required to prepare a buffer
solution of a given pH
22. understand how to use a weak acid–strong base titration curve to:
i demonstrate buffer action
ii determine Ka from the pH at the point where half the acid is neutralised
23. understand why there is a difference in enthalpy changes of neutralisation values
for strong and weak acids
24. understand the roles of carbonic acid molecules and hydrogencarbonate ions in
controlling the pH of blood
CORE PRACTICAL 9: Finding the Ka value for a weak acid

Topic 13: Energetics II

Topic 13A: Lattice energy
1. be able to define lattice energy as the energy change when one mole of an ionic
solid is formed from its gaseous ions
2. be able to define the terms:
i enthalpy change of atomisation, ΔatH
ii electron affinity
3. be able to construct Born-Haber cycles and carry out related calculations
4. know that lattice energy provides a measure of ionic bond strength
5. understand that a comparison of the experimental lattice energy value (from a
Born-Haber cycle) with the theoretical value (obtained from electrostatic theory)
in a particular compound indicates the degree of covalent bonding
6. understand the meaning of polarisation as applied to ions
7. know that the polarising power of a cation depends on its radius and charge
8. know that the polarisability of an anion depends on its radius and charge
9. be able to define the terms ‘enthalpy change of solution, ΔsolH’, and ‘enthalpy
change of hydration, ΔhydH’
10. be able to use energy cycles and energy level diagrams to carry out calculations
involving enthalpy change of solution, enthalpy change of hydration and lattice
energy
11. understand the effect of ionic charge and ionic radius on the values of:
i lattice energy
ii enthalpy change of hydration

Topic 13B: Entropy
12. understand that, since some endothermic reactions can occur at room
temperature, enthalpy changes alone do not control whether reactions occur
13. know that entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system and that the natural
direction of change is increasing total entropy (positive entropy change)
14. understand why entropy changes occur during:
i changes of state
ii dissolving of a solid ionic lattice
iii reactions in which there is a change in the number of moles from reactants to
products
Students should be able to discuss typical reactions in terms of disorder and
enthalpy change, including:
o dissolving ammonium nitrate crystals in water
o reacting ethanoic acid with ammonium carbonate
o burning magnesium ribbon in air
o mixing solid barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2.8H2O, with solid ammonium
chloride.
15. understand that the total entropy change in any reaction is the entropy change in
the system added to the entropy change in the surroundings, shown by the
expression:
ΔStotal = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings
16. be able to calculate the entropy change for the system, ΔSsystem , in a reaction,
given the entropies of the reactants and products
17. be able to calculate the entropy change in the surroundings, and hence ΔStotal ,
using the expression:
∆ ∆ =− surroundings
H S
T
18. know that the balance between the entropy change and the enthalpy change
determines the feasibility of a reaction and is represented by the equation
ΔG = ΔH − TΔSsystem
19. be able to use the equation ΔG = ΔH − TΔSsystem to:
i predict whether a reaction is feasible
ii determine the temperature at which a reaction is feasible
20. be able to use the equation ΔG = −RT ln K to show that reactions which are
feasible in terms of ΔG have large values for the equilibrium constant and vice
versa
21. understand why a reaction for which the ΔG value is negative may not occur in
practice
22. know that reactions that are thermodynamically feasible may be inhibited by
kinetic factors

Topic 14: Redox II

1. understand the terms ‘oxidation’ and ‘reduction’ in terms of electron transfer,
applied to s-, p- and d-block elements
2. understand the terms ‘oxidation’ and ‘reduction’ in terms of changes in oxidation
number, applied to s-, p- and d-block elements
3. know what is meant by the term ‘standard electrode potential’, Eo
4. know that the standard electrode potential, Eo, refers to conditions of:
i 298 K temperature
ii 100 kPa pressure of gases
iii 1.00 mol dm-3 concentration of ions
5. know the features of the standard hydrogen electrode and understand why a
reference electrode is necessary
6. understand that different methods are used to measure standard electrode
potentials of:
i metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in aqueous solution
ii ions of the same element with different oxidation numbers
CORE PRACTICAL 10: Investigating some electrochemical cells
7. be able to calculate a standard emf, Eo cell, by combining two standard electrode
potentials
8. be able to write cell diagrams using the conventional representation of half-cells
9. understand the importance of the conditions when measuring the electrode
potential, E
10. be able to predict the thermodynamic feasibility of a reaction using standard
electrode potentials

11. understand that Eo cell is directly proportional to the total entropy change and to
ln K for a reaction
12. understand the limitations of predictions made using standard electrode
potentials, in terms of kinetic inhibition and departure from standard conditions
13. know that standard electrode potentials can be listed as an electrochemical series
14. understand how disproportionation reactions relate to standard electrode
potentials
15. understand the application of electrode potentials to storage cells
16. understand that the energy released on the reaction of a fuel with oxygen is
utilised in a fuel cell to generate a voltage
Knowledge that methanol and other hydrogen-rich fuels are used in fuel cells is
expected.
17. know the electrode reactions that occur in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
Knowledge of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells with both acidic and alkaline
electrolytes is expected.
18. be able to carry out both structured and non-structured titration calculations
including Fe2+/MnO4−, and I2/S2O32−
19. understand the methods used in redox titrations
CORE PRACTICAL 11: Redox titration

Topic 15: Transition Metals

Topic 15A: Principles of transition metal chemistry
1. be able to deduce the electronic configurations of atoms and ions of the d-block
elements of period 4 (Sc–Zn), given the atomic number and charge (if any)
2. know that transition metals are d-block elements that form one or more stable
ions with incompletely-filled d-orbitals
3. understand why transition metals show variable oxidation number
4. know what is meant by the term ‘ligand’
5. understand that dative (coordinate) bonding is involved in the formation of
complex ions
6. know that a complex ion is a central metal ion surrounded by ligands
7. know that transition metals form coloured ions in solution
8. understand that the colour of aqueous ions, and other complex ions, results from
the splitting of the energy levels of the d-orbitals by ligands
9. understand why there is a lack of colour in some aqueous ions and other complex
ions
10. understand that colour changes in transition metal ions may arise as a result of
changes in:
i oxidation number
ii ligand
iii coordination number
11. understand the meaning of the term ‘coordination number’
12. understand why H2O, OH− and NH3 act as monodentate ligands
13. understand why complexes with six-fold coordination have an octahedral shape,
such as those formed by metal ions with H2O, OH− and NH3 as ligands

14. know that transition metal ions may form tetrahedral complexes with relatively
large ligands such as Cl−
15. know that square planar complexes are also formed by transition metal ions and
that cis-platin is an example of such a complex
16. understand why cis-platin used in cancer treatment is supplied as a single isomer
and not in a mixture with the trans form
17. be able to identify bidentate ligands, such as NH2CH2CH2NH2 and multidentate
ligands, such as EDTA4−
18. know that haemoglobin is an iron(II) complex containing a multidentate ligand
The structure of the haem group will not be assessed.
19. know that a ligand exchange reaction occurs when an oxygen molecule bound to
haemoglobin is replaced by a carbon monoxide molecule
Topic 15B: Reactions of transition metal elements
20. know the colours of the oxidation states of vanadium (+5, +4, +3 and +2) in its
compounds
21. understand redox reactions for the interconversion of the oxidation states of
vanadium (+5, +4, +3 and +2), in terms of the relevant Eo values
22. understand, in terms of the relevant Eo values, that the dichromate(VI) ion,
Cr2O72−:
i can be reduced to Cr3+ and Cr2+ ions using zinc in acidic conditions
ii can be produced by the oxidation of Cr3+ ions using hydrogen peroxide in
alkaline conditions (followed by acidification)
23. know that the dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72−, can be converted into chromate(VI)
ions as a result of the equilibrium
2CrO42−+ 2H+ ⇌ Cr2O72−+ H2O
24. be able to record observations and write suitable equations for the reactions of
Cr3+(aq), Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq), Co2+(aq) and Cu2+(aq) with aqueous sodium
hydroxide and aqueous ammonia, including in excess
25. be able to write ionic equations to show the difference between ligand exchange
and amphoteric behaviour for the reactions in (24) above
26. understand that ligand exchange, and an accompanying colour change, occurs in
the formation of:
i [Cu(ΝΗ3)4(Η2Ο)2]2+ from [Cu(Η2Ο)6]2+ via Cu(OH)2(Η2Ο)4
ii [CuCl4]2− from [Cu(Η2Ο)6]2+
iii [CoCl4]2− from [Co(Η2Ο)6]2+
27. understand that the substitution of small, uncharged ligands (such as H2O) by
larger, charged ligands (such as Cl−) can lead to a change in coordination
number
28. understand, in terms of the large positive increase in ΔSsystem, that the
substitution of a monodentate ligand by a bidentate or multidentate ligand leads
to a more stable complex ion

29. know that transition metals and their compounds can act as heterogeneous and
homogeneous catalysts
30. know that a heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants and
that the reaction occurs at the surface of the catalyst
31. understand, in terms of oxidation number, how V2O5 acts as a catalyst in the
contact process
32. understand how a catalytic converter decreases carbon monoxide and nitrogen
monoxide emissions from internal combustion engines by:
i adsorption of CO and NO molecules onto the surface of the catalyst
ii weakening of bonds and chemical reaction
iii desorption of CO2 and N2 product molecules from the surface of the catalyst
33. know that a homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants and
appreciate that the catalysed reaction will proceed via an intermediate species
34. understand the role of Fe2+ ions in catalysing the reaction between I− and S2O82−
ions
35. know the role of Mn2+ ions in autocatalysing the reaction between MnO4− and
C2O42− ions
CORE PRACTICAL 12: The preparation of a transition metal complex

Topic 16: Kinetics II

1. understand the terms:
i rate of reaction
ii rate equation
iii order with respect to a substance in a rate equation
iv overall order of reaction
v rate constant
vi half-life
vii rate-determining step
viii activation energy
ix heterogeneous and homogenous catalyst
2. be able to determine and use rate equations of the form:
rate = k[A]m[B]n, where m and n are 0, 1 or 2
3. be able to select and justify a suitable experimental technique to obtain rate data
for a given reaction, including:
i titration
ii colorimetry
iii mass change
iv volume of gas evolved
v other suitable technique(s) for a given reaction
4. understand experiments that can be used to investigate reaction rates by:
i an initial-rate method, carrying out separate experiments where different
initial concentrations of one reagent are used
A ‘clock reaction’ is an acceptable approximation of this method
ii a continuous monitoring method to generate data to enable concentrationtime or volume-time graphs to be plotted

5. be able to calculate the rate of reaction and the half-life of a first-order reaction
using data from a concentration-time or a volume-time graph
6. be able to deduce the order (0, 1 or 2) with respect to a substance in a rate
equation using data from:
i a concentration-time graph
ii a rate-concentration graph
7. be able to deduce the order (0, 1 or 2) with respect to a substance in a rate
equation using data from an initial-rate method
8. understand how to:
i obtain data to calculate the order with respect to the reactants (and the
hydrogen ion) in the acid-catalysed iodination of propanone
ii use these data to make predictions about species involved in the
rate-determining step
iii deduce a possible mechanism for the reaction
9. be able to deduce a rate-determining step from a rate equation and vice versa
10. be able to deduce a reaction mechanism, using knowledge from a rate equation
and the stoichiometric equation for a reaction
11. understand that knowledge of the rate equations for the hydrolysis of
halogenoalkanes can be used to provide evidence for SN1 or SN2 mechanisms for
tertiary and primary halogenoalkane hydrolysis
12. be able to use graphical methods to find the activation energy for a reaction from
experimental data
The Arrhenius equation will be given if needed.
CORE PRACTICAL 13a and 13b: Rates of reaction
Following the rate of the iodine-propanone reaction by a titrimetric method
and investigating a ‘clock reaction’ (Harcourt-Esson, iodine clock)
CORE PRACTICAL 14: Finding the activation energy of a reaction

Topic 17: Organic Chemistry II

Topic 17A: Chirality
1. know that optical isomerism is a result of chirality in molecules with a single
chiral centre
2. understand that optical isomerism results from chiral centre(s) in a molecule
with asymmetric carbon atom(s) and that optical isomers are object and nonsuperimposable mirror images
3. know that optical activity is the ability of a single optical isomer to rotate the
plane of polarisation of plane-polarised monochromatic light in molecules
containing a single chiral centre
4. understand the nature of a racemic mixture
5. be able to use data on optical activity of reactants and products as evidence for
SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
Topic 17B: Carbonyl compounds
6. be able to identify the aldehyde and ketone functional groups
7. understand that aldehydes and ketones:
i do not form intermolecular hydrogen bonds and this affects their physical
properties
ii can form hydrogen bonds with water and this affects their solubility

8. understand the reactions of carbonyl compounds with:
i Fehling’s or Benedict’s solution, Tollens’ reagent and acidified
dichromate(VI) ions
In equations, the oxidising agent can be represented as [O]
ii lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (lithium aluminium hydride) in dry ether
In equations, the reducing agent can be represented as [H]
iii HCN, in the presence of KCN, as a nucleophilic addition reaction, using curly
arrows, relevant lone pairs, dipoles and evidence of optical activity to show
the mechanism
iv 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH), as a qualitative test for the
presence of a carbonyl group and to identify a carbonyl compound given data
for the melting temperatures of derivatives
The equation for this reaction is not required
v iodine in the presence of alkali
Topic 17C: Carboxylic acids
9. be able to identify the carboxylic acid functional group
10. understand that hydrogen bonding affects the physical properties of carboxylic
acids, in relation to their boiling temperatures and solubility
11. understand that carboxylic acids can be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols or
aldehydes, and the hydrolysis of nitriles
12. understand the reactions of carboxylic acids with:
i lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (lithium aluminium hydride) in dry ether
ii bases to produce salts
iii phosphorus(V) chloride (phosphorus pentachloride)
iv alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst
13. be able to identify the acyl chloride and ester functional groups
14. understand the reactions of acyl chlorides with:
i water
ii alcohols
iii concentrated ammonia
iv amines
15. understand the hydrolysis reactions of esters, in acidic and alkaline solution
16. understand how polyesters are formed by condensation polymerisation reactions

Topic 18: Organic Chemistry III

Topic 18A: Arenes – benzene
1. understand that the bonding in benzene has been represented using the Kekulé
and the delocalised model, the latter in terms of overlap of p-orbitals to form
π-bonds
2. understand that evidence for the delocalised model of the bonding in benzene is
provided by data from enthalpy changes of hydrogenation and carbon-carbon
bond lengths
Students may represent the structure of benzene as:
or as appropriate in equations and mechanisms.
3. understand why benzene is resistant to bromination, compared with alkenes, in
terms of delocalisation of π-bonds in benzene and the localised electron density
of the π-bond in alkenes
4. understand the reactions of benzene with:
i oxygen in air (combustion with a smoky flame)
ii bromine, in the presence of a catalyst
iii a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids
iv halogenoalkanes and acyl chlorides with aluminium chloride as catalyst
(Friedel-Crafts reaction)
5. understand the mechanism of the electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
(halogenation, nitration and Friedel-Crafts reactions), including the generation of
the electrophile
6. understand the reaction of phenol with bromine water
7. understand reasons for the relative ease of bromination of phenol, compared to
benzene

Topic 18B: Amines, amides, amino acids and proteins
8. be able to identify:
i the amine and amide functional groups
ii molecules that are amino acids
9. understand the reactions of primary aliphatic amines, using butylamine as an
example, with:
i water to form an alkaline solution
ii acids to form salts
iii ethanoyl chloride
iv halogenoalkanes
v copper(II) ions to form complex ions
10. understand reasons for the difference in basicity of ammonia, primary aliphatic
and primary aromatic amines given suitable data
11. understand, in terms of reagents and general reaction conditions, the preparation
of primary aliphatic amines:
i from halogenoalkanes
ii by the reduction of nitriles
12. know that aromatic nitro-compounds can be reduced, using tin and concentrated
hydrochloric acid, to form amines
13. understand that amides can be prepared from acyl chlorides
14. know that the formation of a polyamide is a condensation polymerisation reaction
15. be able to draw the structural formulae of the repeat units of condensation
polymers formed by reactions between:
i dicarboxylic acids and diols
ii dicarboxylic acids and diamines
iii amino acids
16. understand the properties of 2-amino acids, including:
i acidity and basicity in solution, as a result of the formation of zwitterions
ii effect of aqueous solutions on plane-polarised monochromatic light
17. understand that the peptide bond in proteins:
i is formed when amino acids combine, by condensation polymerisation
ii can be hydrolysed to form the constituent amino acids, which can be
separated by chromatography
CORE PRACTICAL 15: Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknowns

Topic 18C: Organic Synthesis
18. be able to deduce the empirical formulae, molecular formulae and structural
formulae of compounds from data obtained from combustion analysis, elemental
percentage composition, characteristic reactions of functional groups, infrared
spectra, mass spectra and nuclear magnetic resonance
19. be able to plan reaction schemes, of up to four steps, to form both familiar and
unfamiliar compounds
20. understand methods of increasing the length of the carbon chain in a molecule
by the use of magnesium to form Grignard reagents and the reactions of the
latter with carbon dioxide and with carbonyl compounds in dry ether
21. be able to select and justify suitable practical procedures for carrying out
reactions involving compounds with functional groups included in the
specification, including identifying appropriate control measures to reduce risk,
based on data about hazards
22. understand the following techniques used in the preparation and purification of
organic compounds:
i refluxing
ii purification by washing
iii solvent extraction
iv recrystallisation
v drying
vi distillation, including steam distillation
vii melting temperature determination
viii boiling temperature determination
CORE PRACTICAL 16: The preparation of aspirin

Topic 19: Modern Analytical Techniques II

Topic 19A: Mass Spectrometry
1. be able to use data from mass spectra to:
i suggest possible structures of a simple organic compound given relative
molecular masses, accurate to four decimal places
ii calculate the accurate relative molecular mass of a compound, given relative
atomic masses to four decimal places, and therefore identify a compound
Topic 19B: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
2. understand that 13C NMR spectroscopy provides information about the positions
of 13C atoms in a molecule
3. be able to use data from 13C NMR spectroscopy to:
i predict the different environments for carbon atoms present in a molecule,
given values of chemical shift, δ
ii justify the number of peaks present in a 13C NMR spectrum because of carbon
atoms in different environments
4. understand that high resolution proton NMR provides information about the
positions of 1H atoms in a molecule
5. be able to use data from high resolution 1H NMR spectroscopy to:
i predict the different types of proton present in a molecule, given values of
chemical shift, δ
ii relate relative peak areas, or ratio numbers of protons, to the relative
numbers of 1H atoms in different environments
iii deduce the splitting patterns of adjacent, non-equivalent protons using the
(n+1) rule and hence suggest the possible structures for a molecule
iv predict the chemical shifts and splitting patterns of the 1H atoms in a given
molecule

Topic 19C: Chromatography
6. know that chromatography separates components of a mixture between a mobile
phase and a stationary phase
7. be able to calculate Rf values from one-way chromatograms
8. know that high performance liquid chromatography, HPLC, and gas
chromatography, GC:
i are types of column chromatography
ii separate substances because of different retention times in the column
iii may be used in conjunction with mass spectrometry, in applications such as
forensics or drugs testing in sport

University Recognition and Pathways

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Many competitive programmes require or strongly recommend A-Level Chemistry.

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